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Lecturer1 introduction to computer architecture (ca)
- 1. Computer Architecture 125R CAT115D by Elias Khoza (MCOMP, CSE) Solutions Architecture Email: khozaet@tut.ac.za
- 2. Basic concepts and computer evolution (part one) by Elias Khoza
- 3. We’ll start with a sign in sheet that include questions about your computer architecture experience and goals. We’ll end with a class evaluation. We’ll cover as much as we can in the time allowed, starting with the easiest and most important material. Don’t feel rushed; if we don’t cover everything, you’ll pick it up as you continue working with course. Ask questions every after topic or session.
- 4. 1.1 A Brief History of Computers 1.2 Organization and Architecture 1.3 Structure and Function 1.4 The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture 1.5 Embedded Systems 1.6 Cloud Computing
- 5. After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the general functions and structure of a digital computer. Present an overview of the evolution of computer technology from early digital computers to the latest microprocessors. Present an overview of the evolution of the x86 architecture. Define embedded systems and list some of the requirements and constraints that various embedded systems must meet.
- 6. Currently, there are five generations of computer. In the following subsections, we will discuss the generations of computer in terms of the technology used by them (hardware and software), computing characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions executed per second), physical appearance, and their applications. © Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office, The City School. 6
- 7. The first computers used vacuum tubes(a sealed glass tube containing a near-vacuum which allows the free passage of electric current.) for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. They were often enormous and taking up entire room. First generation computers relied on machine language. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions(defect or breakdown). The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first- generation computing devices. © Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office, The City School. 7
- 8. Advantages : It was only electronic device First device to hold memory Disadvantages : Too bulky i.e large in size Vacuum tubes burn frequently They were producing heat Maintenance problems © Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office, The City School. 8
- 9. The first publication of the idea was in a 1945 proposal by von Neumann for a new computer, the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) Six types of registers that are found in CU & ALU: Memory buffer register (MBR): Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit, or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit. Memory address register (MAR): Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from or read into the MBR. Instruction register (IR): Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed. Instruction buffer register (IBR): Employed to hold temporarily the right- hand instruction from a word in memory. Program counter (PC): Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched from memory. Accumulator (AC) and multiplier quotient (MQ): Employed to hold temporarily operands and results of ALU operations.
- 10. • Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. • Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic. • High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. • These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory. © Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office, The City School. 10
- 11. Example of second gen is IBM 7094 COMPUTER.
- 12. Advantages : Size reduced considerably The very fast Very much reliable Disadvantages : They over heated quickly Maintenance problems © Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office, The City School. 12
- 13. The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on siliconchips, called semiconductors. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system. Allowed the device to run many different applications at one time. © Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office, The City School. 13
- 14. Advantages : ICs are very small in size Improved performance Production cost cheap Disadvantages : ICs are sophisticated © Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office, The City School. 14
- 15. The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer. From the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip. . Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices. © Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office, The City School. 15
- 16. © Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office, The City School. 16
- 17. Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence. Are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization. © Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office, The City School. 17
- 18. © Educational Technology Department, Group Head Office, The City School. 18
- 19. Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible to a programmer or, put another way, those attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to represent various data types (e.g., numbers, characters), I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing memory.
- 20. Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications. Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to represent various data types (e.g., numbers, characters), I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing memory.
- 21. A computer is a complex system; contemporary computers contain millions of elementary electronic components. Structure: The way in which the components are interrelated. Function: The operation of each individual component as part of the structure. In general terms, there are only four basic functions that a computer can perform:
- 22. Data processing: Data may take a wide variety of forms, and the range of processing requirements is broad. Data storage: Even if the computer is processing data on the fly (i.e., data come in and get processed, and the results go out immediately), the computer must temporarily store at least those pieces of data that are being worked on at any given moment. Data movement: The computer’s operating environment consists of devices that serve as either sources or destinations of data. Control: Within the computer, a control unit manages the computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in response to instructions.
- 23. There are four main structural components: Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data processing functions; often simply referred to as processor. Main memory: Stores data. I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment. System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU, main memory, and I/O.
- 25. The most complex component is the CPU. Its major structural components are as follows: Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer. Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data processing functions. Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU. CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers.
- 26. We will look into two processor families namely: intel x86 and ARM architecture. The current x86 offerings represent the results of decades of design effort on complex instruction set computers (CISCs). The x86 incorporates the sophisticated design principles once found only on mainframes and supercomputers and serves as an excellent example of CISC design.
- 27. We will look into two processor families namely: intel x86 and ARM architecture. The ARM architecture is used in a wide variety of embedded systems and is one of the most powerful and best-designed RISC-based systems on the market. A six-core Core i7 EE 4960X introduced in 2013 operates at 4 GHz, a speedup of a factor of 800, and has 1.86 billion transistors, about 64,000 times as many as the 8086. Yet the Core i7 EE 4960X is in only a slightly larger package than the 8086 and has a comparable cost.
- 29. The term embedded system refers to the use of electronics and software within a product, as opposed to a general- purpose computer, such as a laptop or desktop system. Millions of computers are sold every year, including laptops, personal computers, workstations, servers, mainframes, and supercomputers. Examples include cell phones, digital cameras, video cameras, calculators, microwave ovens, home security systems, washing machines, lighting systems, thermostats, printers, various automotive systems (e.g., transmission control, cruise control, fuel injection, anti-lock brakes, and suspension systems), tennis rackets, toothbrushes, and numerous types of sensors and actuators in automated systems.
- 31. Embedded systems often interact (sense, manipulate, and communicate) with external world through sensors and actuators and hence are typically reactive systems; a reactive system is in continual interaction with the environment and executes at a pace determined by that environment.
- 32. The human interface may be as simple as a flashing light or as complicated as real-time robotic vision. In many cases, there is no human interface. The diagnostic port may be used for diagnosing the system that is being controlled—not just for diagnosing the computer. Special-purpose field programmable (FPGA), application-specific (ASIC), or even nondigital hardware may be used to increase performance or reliability. Software often has a fixed function and is specific to the application. Efficiency is of paramount importance for embedded systems. They are optimized for energy, code size, execution time, weight and dimensions, and cost. Even with nominally fixed function software, the ability to field upgrade to fix bugs, to improve security, and to add functionality, has become very important for embedded systems, and not just in consumer devices. One comparatively recent development has been of embedded system platforms that support a wide variety of apps. Good examples of this are smartphones and audio/visual devices, such as smart TVs.
- 33. Embedded Operating Systems There are two general approaches to developing an embedded operating system (OS). The first approach is to take an existing OS and adapt it for the embedded application. For example, there are embedded versions of Linux, Windows, and Mac, as well as other commercial and proprietary operating systems specialized for embedded systems.
- 34. The Internet of things (IoT) is a term that refers to the expanding interconnection of smart devices, ranging from appliances to tiny sensors. A dominant theme is the embedding of short-range mobile transceivers into a wide array of gadgets and everyday items, enabling new forms of communication between people and things, and between things themselves.
- 35. With reference to the end systems supported, the Internet has gone through roughly four generations of deployment culminating in the IoT: 1. Information technology (IT): PCs, servers, routers, firewalls, and so on, bought as IT devices by enterprise IT people and primarily using wired connectivity. 2. Operational technology (OT): Machines/appliances with embedded IT built by non-IT companies, such as medical machinery, SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition), process control, and kiosks, bought as appliances by enterprise OT people and primarily using wired connectivity.
- 36. 3. Personal technology: Smartphones, tablets, and eBook readers bought as IT devices by consumers (employees) exclusively using wireless connectivity and often multiple forms of wireless connectivity. 4. Sensor/actuator technology: Single-purpose devices bought by consumers, IT, and OT people exclusively using wireless connectivity, generally of a single form, as part of larger systems. It is the fourth generation that is usually thought of as the IoT, and it is marked by the use of billions of embedded devices.
- 37. There are two general approaches to developing an embedded operating system(OS). The first approach is to take an existing OS and adapt it for the embedded application. For example, there are embedded versions of Linux, Windows, and Mac, as well as other commercial and proprietary operating systems specialized for embedded systems. The other approach is to design and implement an OS intended solely for embedded use. An example of the latter is TinyOS, widely used in wireless sensor networks.
- 38. Although the general concepts for cloud computing go back to the 1950s, cloud computing services first became available in the early 2000s, particularly targeted at large enterprises. Basic concepts: There is an increasingly prominent trend in many organizations to move a substantial portion or even all information technology (IT) operations to an Internet-connected infrastructure known as enterprise cloud computing.
- 39. Cloud computing: A model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. Types of cloud are cloud networking, cloud storage, etc.
- 40. The essential purpose of cloud computing is to provide for the convenient rental of computing resources. A cloud service provider (CSP) maintains computing and data storage resources that are available over the Internet or private networks. Virtually all cloud service is provided using one of three models (Figure 1.17): SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS, which are examined as follows: software as a service (SaaS) As the name implies, a SaaS cloud provides service to customers in the form of software, specifically application software, running on and accessible in the cloud. E.G gmail and salesforce.com
- 41. platform as a service (PaaS) A PaaS cloud provides service to customers in the form of a platform on which the customer’s applications can run. PaaS enables the customer to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure containing customer-created or acquired applications. Example: Google App Engine infrastructure as a service (IaaS) With IaaS, the customer has access to the underlying cloud infrastructure. IaaS provides virtual machines and other abstracted hardware and operating systems, which may be controlled through a service application programming interface (API). Examples are windows azure & Amazon
- 43. END Thank you!!