Byte and string manipulation 8086
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This document discusses string manipulation instructions in the 8086 microprocessor. It describes instructions such as REP, MOVS, CMPS, SCAS, LODS, and STOS. REP is a prefix that repeats string instructions until a condition is met. MOVS copies a byte or word from one memory location to another, adjusting indexes after each operation. CMPS compares bytes or words in strings. SCAS compares a string element to a register. LODS loads a string element into a register. STOS stores a register value into a string element memory location.
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Line coding
Line codingmpsrekha83 This document summarizes line coding, which is the process of converting digital data to digital signals for transmission. It discusses how digital data in the form of text, numbers, images, audio or video are stored as bit sequences in computer memory. Line coding converts these bit sequences into digital signals for transmission, and decoding reconstructs the digital data at the receiver. Some key properties and characteristics of line coding that help efficient transmission are reduced bandwidth usage, efficient power use, error detection and correction capabilities, and avoidance of long strings of 1s and 0s. Specific line coding techniques like NRZ-L, NRZ-I and Differential Manchester are also outlined.
Delta modulation
Delta modulationmpsrekha83 Delta modulation is a modulation technique that transmits only one bit per sample of an analog signal. It works by comparing the present sample value to the previous one and transmitting a bit to indicate if the value increased or decreased. This results in a stepped approximation of the original signal. Only a single bit is needed per sample, allowing delta modulation to have a lower signaling rate and bandwidth than PCM. However, it suffers from slope overload distortion if the input signal changes too quickly for the fixed step size. It also produces granular noise for small input variations due to the large step size. Despite these issues, delta modulation is used for voice transmission systems due to its simple implementation and emphasis on timely delivery over quality.
Block diagram of digital communication
Block diagram of digital communicationmpsrekha83 This document provides an overview of digital communication, including:
1) It discusses the need for digitization of signals to overcome problems with analog communication like distortion, interference, and security issues. Digitization allows for clearer and more accurate communication.
2) The basic elements of a digital communication system are described, including the source, transducers, modulators, channel, demodulators, decoders, and output.
3) Quantization is explained as the process of rounding analog signal values to discrete levels to convert it to digital form, which results in some loss of information. There are different types of quantization including uniform and non-uniform.
Adaptive differential pcm
Adaptive differential pcmmpsrekha83 Adaptive differential PCM (ADPCM) is a method that overcomes disadvantages of delta modulation by allowing the step size to vary automatically based on the error between the input and output signals. This helps eliminate slope overload and hunting issues. ADPCM provides bandwidth compression, requires less power for transmission than normal digital communication, and eliminates synchronization problems by not needing start/stop bits. However, the receiver must adapt step sizes identically to the transmitter for accurate reproduction of the signal.
Adaptive delta modulation
Adaptive delta modulationmpsrekha83 Adaptive delta modulation is a technique that makes the step size adaptive to variations in the input signal in order to overcome quantization errors from slope overload and granular noise. It works by increasing the step size in sections of the signal where it is changing rapidly and decreasing it where the signal is changing slowly. The transmitter uses adaptive logic to continuously or discretely change the step size based on the one-bit quantizer output. The receiver reproduces the step size and uses an accumulator and low-pass filter to reconstruct the original signal from the transmitted bit sequence and adaptively changing step sizes. Adaptive delta modulation provides better signal-to-noise ratio, wider dynamic range, and more efficient bandwidth utilization than regular delta modulation.
Eye pattern
Eye patternmpsrekha83 The eye pattern is a simple way to measure intersymbol interference (ISI) and noise in a signal. It is generated by overlapping each signal element in a system, such as a binary system. An eye pattern is often used to monitor the performance of baseband signals. A high signal-to-noise ratio will result in an eye pattern where the best time to sample is when the eye opening is largest, the maximum distortion and ISI are indicated by the vertical width at sampling time, the noise margin is proportional to the width of the eye opening, and the sensitivity to timing errors is determined by the rate of closure of the eye as the sampling time is varied.
Digital modulation techniques
Digital modulation techniquesmpsrekha83 This document discusses various digital modulation techniques used in digital communications. It describes amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK) including binary PSK (BPSK) and quadrature PSK (QPSK). It provides block diagrams and explanations of modulators and demodulators for ASK, FSK, BPSK and QPSK. It also discusses M-ary encoding techniques that can transmit more than two bits simultaneously to reduce bandwidth.
Pn sequence
Pn sequencempsrekha83 Pseudo-random numbers are statistically random values that are derived from a known starting point and can be repeated. They are useful for processes that require randomness. PN sequences are generated using a linear feedback shift-register circuit with M registers. At each clock pulse, the data shifts one position and a PN datum is output from the last register. The sequence is defined by a generator polynomial where the coefficients determine which registers are used to generate the next value. Autocorrelation and cross-correlation can be used to measure the similarity between a time series and lagged or shifted versions of itself.
Spread spectrum
Spread spectrummpsrekha83 Spread spectrum is a technique used in communication systems to spread the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, making it more resistant to interference and harder to intercept. There are three main types of spread spectrum: direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), and time hopping spread spectrum (THSS). DSSS spreads the signal by multiplying it with a pseudo-random code before transmission. FHSS rapidly switches the carrier frequency according to a pseudo-random sequence. THSS transmits signal bursts in pseudo-random time slots within a frame. Spread spectrum provides advantages like interference rejection, multipath immunity, multiple access, and secure communication.
8086 signals
8086 signalsmpsrekha83 The 8086 has several pins and signals that facilitate its operation and communication with external devices:
- It uses a 5V DC power supply and clock signal for timing. The address/data and address/status buses are used to transmit addresses and data.
- Additional control signals include READ, READY, RESET, INTR, NMI, TEST, MN/MX, INTA, ALE, DEN, DT/R, M/IO, WR, HLDA, HOLD, QS1, QS0, S0-S2, and LOCK to manage interrupts, I/O, memory access, and bus control.
- The status pins QS1, QS0 and S0-S
System bus timing 8086
System bus timing 8086mpsrekha83 The document summarizes the timing of the system bus for the 8086 microprocessor. It describes that a machine cycle consists of at least four clock periods called T1, T2, T3, and T4. For a read bus cycle, the address is sent out in T1, read/write signals appear in T2 along with data for a write, T3 can be a wait state if ready is low, and data is sampled in T4. A write bus cycle outputs the address in T1, data in T2, and a write signal to memory.
Pulse modulation
Pulse modulationmpsrekha83 Pulse modulation is a technique used to transmit analog information by sampling continuous signals at regular intervals and transmitting the signal as a series of pulses. There are two main types of pulse modulation: analog and digital. Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) is the simplest form of pulse modulation, where each sample is made proportional to the amplitude of the original signal at the time of sampling. PAM follows the amplitude of the original signal and can reconstruct the signal through a low pass filter. It is easy to generate and demodulate PAM but requires a large bandwidth and more noise compared to other techniques.
AM diode envelope demodulator
AM diode envelope demodulatormpsrekha83 The document discusses the AM diode envelope detector. It describes how the diode detector detects the envelope of an AM signal using a diode and low-pass filter. The diode rectifies the signal, leaving only the positive or negative half. The filter then removes the high frequencies, leaving an audio signal. While simple and low-cost, the diode detector introduces distortion and has limited sensitivity. However, it remained widely used in radios due to its convenience and low price.
Interrupts of 8086
Interrupts of 8086mpsrekha83 The document discusses interrupts of the 8086 processor. It covers polling and interrupt methods for responding to interrupts. The document provides information on the interrupt method for the 8086 processor and concludes by thanking the reader.
Super heterodyne receiver
Super heterodyne receivermpsrekha83 The document discusses the components and operation of a super heterodyne receiver. It consists of 5 main stages: 1) an RF tuner section that selects the desired frequency, 2) a mixer that combines the received RF signal with a local oscillator signal to produce an intermediate frequency (IF) signal, 3) an IF filter that eliminates unwanted frequencies and noise, 4) a demodulator that retrieves the original audio signal, and 5) an audio amplifier that strengthens the audio signal for output. The super heterodyne receiver overcomes drawbacks of ordinary receivers by translating all signals to a fixed IF for improved selectivity and sensitivity.
Pre emphasis and de-emphasis
Pre emphasis and de-emphasismpsrekha83 Pre-emphasis refers to boosting higher audio frequencies between 2-15 kHz at the transmitter. De-emphasis means attenuating those same frequencies by the same amount at the receiver. This is done to improve the signal-to-noise ratio for FM reception. Both pre-emphasis and de-emphasis use either an RC or L/Z network with a time constant of 75 microseconds to boost then attenuate the higher frequencies.
Fm generation
Fm generationmpsrekha83 The Armstrong method is an indirect method used to generate FM by using a phase modulator. It has two parts:
1. A narrowband FM wave is generated using a phase modulator fed by a crystal oscillator. The stable oscillator allows high frequency stability.
2. Frequency multipliers and a mixer are used to increase the carrier frequency and modulation index of the narrowband FM wave to desired values for broadcast applications. This makes the Armstrong method suitable for broadcast purposes where direct methods using unstable LC oscillators cannot be used.
Fm demodulation using zero crossing detector
Fm demodulation using zero crossing detectormpsrekha83 This document discusses FM demodulation using a zero crossing detector. It contains a block diagram of a zero crossing detector system consisting of a zero crossing detector, pulse generator, DC block, and low pass filter. It explains that the zero crossing detector operates by measuring the time difference between adjacent zero crossings of the FM wave, which is related to the instantaneous frequency and can be used to recover the message signal. It notes the advantages and disadvantages of this technique.
FM demodulation using PLL
FM demodulation using PLLmpsrekha83 The document discusses FM demodulation using a phase-locked loop (PLL). A PLL consists of a phase detector, loop filter, and voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) connected in a feedback loop. It works by using the phase detector to compare the input signal frequency to the VCO output frequency. Any difference or error signal is fed through the loop filter to control the VCO frequency, adjusting it until the two frequencies are synchronized and phase-locked. In this way, a PLL can track the frequency and phase of an incoming FM signal to demodulate it.
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Byte and string manipulation 8086
- 1. Byte and String Manipulation Unit -1 Presented By Mrs. M.P.Sasirekha
- 2. String Instruction in 8086 • The String Instruction in 8086 are namely, • REP/REPE/REPZ/REPNE/REPNZ • MOVS/MOVSB/MOVSN • CMPS/CMPSB/CMPSW • SCAS/SCASB/SCASW • LODS/LODSB/LODSW • STOS/STOSB/STOSW
- 3. REP/REPE/REPZ/REPNE/REPNZ Instruction • REP is a prefix which is written before one of the String Instruction in 8086. These instructions repeat until specified condition exists.
- 4. MOVS/MOVSB/MOVSW Instruction • This instruction copies a byte or word from a location in the data segment to a location in the extra segment. • The offset of the source byte or word in the data segment must be in the SI register. • The offset of the destination in the extra segment must be contained in the DI register. • For multiple byte or multiple word moves the number of elements to be moved is put in the CX register so that it can function as a counter. • After the byte or word is moved SI and DI are automatically adjusted to point to the next source and the next destination.
- 5. MOVS/MOVSB/MOVSW Instruction • If the direction flag is 0, then SI and DI will be incremented by 1 after a byte move and they will incremented by 2 after a word move. • If the DF is a 1, then SI and DI will be decremented by 1 after a byte move and they will be decremented by 2 after a word move. • MOVS affects no flags. • The way to tell the assembler whether to code the instruction for a byte or word move is to add a “B” or a “W” to the MOVS mnemonic. • MOVSB, for example, says move a string as bytes. MOVSW
- 7. CMPS/CMPSB/CMPSW Instruction • A String Instruction in 8086 is a series of the same type of data items in sequential memory locations. • The CMPS instruction can be used to compare a byte in one string with a byte in another string or to compare a word in one string with a word in another string. • SI is used to hold the offset of a byte or word in the source string and DI is used to hold the offset of a byte or a word in the other string. The comparison is done by subtracting the byte or word pointed to by DI from the byte or word pointed to by SI. • The AF, CF, OF, PF, SF, and ZF flags are affected by the comparison, but neither operand is affected.
- 8. CMPS/CMPSB/CMPSW Instruction • After the comparison SI and DI will be automatically incremented or decremented according to direction flag to point to the next element in the two strings (if DF = 0, SI and DI ↑ ) CX functions as a counter which is decremented after each comparison. • This will go on until CX = 0
- 9. SCAS/SCASB/SCASW Instruction • SCAS compares a string byte with a byte in AL or a string word with word in AX. • The instruction affects the flags, but it does not change either the operand in AL (AX) or the operand in the String Instruction in 8086. • The string to be ‘scanned must be in the extra segment and DI must contain the offset of the byte or the word to be compared. • After the comparison DI will be automatically incremented or decremented according to direction flag, to point to the next element in the two strings (if DF = 0, SI and DI ↑ ) CX functions as a counter which is decremented after each comparison. • This will go on until CX = 0. SCAS affects the AF, CF, OF, PF, SF and ZF flags.
- 11. LODS/LODSB/LODSW Instruction • This instruction copies a byte from a string location pointed to by SI to AL, or a word from a string location pointed to by SI to AX. LODS does not affect any flags. LODSB copies byte and LODSW copies a word.
- 12. STOS/STOSB/STOSW Instruction • The STOS instruction copies a byte from AL or a word from AX to a memory location in the extra segment. • DI is used to hold the offset of the memory location in the extra segment. • After the copy, DI is automatically incremented or decremented to point to the next string element in memory. • If the direction flag, DF, is cleared, then DI will automatically be incremented by one for a byte string or incremented by two for a word String Instruction in 8086. • If the direction flag is set, DI will be automatically decremented by ono for a byte string or decremented by two for a word string. STOS does not affect any flags. STOSB copies byte and STOSW copies a word.
- 14. Thank you