Introduction to bioinformatics
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Hamid-ur-Rahman studied Zoology at Islamia College in Peshawar. The document defines bioinformatics as the unified discipline combining biology, computer science, and information technology, aiming to solve biological problems using DNA, amino acid sequences, and related information, as described by Frank Tekaia.
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Glycogen Metabolism and ControlHamid Ur-Rahman 1. Glycogen is the major storage form of carbohydrate in liver and muscle.
2. Glycogen is synthesized and broken down through separate pathways to service tissues via blood glucose or as fuel for muscle.
3. Cyclic AMP regulates glycogen metabolism by activating phosphorylase for breakdown and inhibiting synthase for storage. Insulin has opposite effects.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative PhosphorylationHamid Ur-Rahman Oxidative Phosphorylation
Reading: Harper's Biochemistry pp. 130-148 Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry 3rd Ed. pp. 659-690.
Ubiquinone (Coenzyme Q, or Q) Electron Carrier
Ubiquinone (Coenzyme Q, or Q) Electron CarrierHamid Ur-Rahman Ubiquinone, also known as coenzyme Q, is a small, hydrophobic and lipid-soluble benzoquinone electron carrier. It exists in a reduced form, ubiquinol, and an oxidized form, ubiquinone. The reduction of ubiquinone to ubiquinol requires two electrons and two protons and occurs in two steps through a semiquinone radical intermediate.
Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation
Electron Transport and Oxidative PhosphorylationHamid Ur-Rahman The document summarizes electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria. It describes how:
1) The electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane is made up of four complexes that transfer electrons from nutrients to oxygen, pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space.
2) As electrons are passed through the complexes, energy is used to transport protons against their concentration gradient, building up a electrochemical proton gradient across the inner membrane.
3) ATP synthase uses the potential energy in this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Citric Acid Cycle-Anaplerosis
Citric Acid Cycle-AnaplerosisHamid Ur-Rahman The citric acid cycle provides precursors for biosynthetic pathways and serves catabolic and anabolic processes. It is regulated by substrate availability and product inhibition. Anaplerotic reactions replenish cycle intermediates used for biosynthesis. Acetyl-CoA derived from the cycle is used in fatty acid synthesis in the cytoplasm. The glyoxylate cycle allows conversion of acetate to carbohydrates in some organisms.
Citric Acid Cycle 
Citric Acid Cycle Hamid Ur-Rahman The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that break down acetyl groups from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide, generating reduced coenzymes used in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, then the citric acid cycle oxidizes acetyl-CoA in 8 steps, producing NADH, FADH2, and GTP or ATP while releasing CO2. This cycling of intermediates allows for the efficient breakdown of fuels to generate energy.
Glycolysis
GlycolysisHamid Ur-Rahman Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It is catalyzed by 10 cytosolic enzymes in 10 steps. There is a net gain of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. The NADH must be recycled to NAD+ either through aerobic respiration or by converting pyruvate to lactate anaerobically. Glycolysis is regulated at three irreversible steps catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase-1, and pyruvate kinase. Other hexoses can also enter this ubiquitous pathway.
BioEnergetics
BioEnergeticsHamid Ur-Rahman 1) Bioenergetics examines the energy flow in living organisms using concepts like entropy, enthalpy, and free energy.
2) ATP acts as the energy currency of cells, being produced through exergonic reactions and consumed to power endergonic reactions.
3) Standard free energy changes can be added for coupled reactions and actual free energy depends on reactant and product concentrations, driving reactions towards or away from equilibrium.
Zoological congres
Zoological congresHamid Ur-Rahman - The study determined the distribution, population, and food habits of the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) in Chakwal district, Pakistan.
- Surveys found the species distributed across the district, with a population density estimate of 0.3 individuals/km2 based on burrow counts.
- Analysis of fecal samples revealed the diet consisted primarily of ants (100% frequency) and ant body parts (30% volume), with soil particles also present (62% volume).
- Threats to the near threatened species were noted as hunting for trade and slow reproduction rate. Conservation strategies were recommended.
Trophy hunting
Trophy huntingHamid Ur-Rahman Trophy hunting provides socioeconomic benefits to communities in Gilgit Baltistan. Through community conservation programs, local communities conserve wildlife habitats and populations in return for sharing revenues from permit fees for hunting large trophy animals like markhor, ibex, and blue sheep. Hunting programs have led to increased populations of endangered species. Communities receive 80% of permit fees, providing a significant source of income. This study found that trophy hunting improved local incomes and incentivized conservation, with wildlife populations and trophy sizes increasing in community-managed areas. The programs have educated communities about conservation while supporting sustainable use of natural resources.
Tick infestation majid m. m.
Tick infestation majid m. m.Hamid Ur-Rahman This study examined the prevalence of tick infestation on livestock in Pothwar, Pakistan. A total of 1804 animals were examined from October 2008 to August 2009, of which 814 (45.1%) were infested with ticks. Cattle had the highest rate of infestation at 58.8% while goats were the lowest at 38.8%. Six tick genera were identified with Haemaphysalis being the most prevalent. Tick infestation rates and burdens were highest in summer months like July and August when humidity and temperatures are higher, and lowest in winter months.
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