Contiguous Memory Allocation.ppt

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Contiguous allocation is an early method for allocating main memory between the operating system and user processes. Each process is contained within a single contiguous section of memory. Relocation and limit registers are used to protect processes from each other and allow transient changes to the operating system. Multiple-partition allocation allocates variable sized partitions to processes out of memory holes. Storage allocation approaches like first-fit and best-fit are used to allocate partitions from the holes. Fragmentation can occur both externally and internally, taking up space that cannot be used.

8.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition
Contiguous Allocation
 Main memory must support both OS and user processes
 Limited resource, must allocate efficiently
 Contiguous allocation is one early method
 Main memory usually into two partitions:
 Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with
interrupt vector
 User processes then held in high memory
 Each process contained in single contiguous section of
memory

8.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition
Contiguous Allocation (Cont.)
 Relocation registers used to protect user processes from each
other, and from changing operating-system code and data
 Base register contains value of smallest physical address
 Limit register contains range of logical addresses – each
logical address must be less than the limit register
 MMU maps logical address dynamically
 Can then allow actions such as kernel code being transient
and kernel changing size

8.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition
Hardware Support for Relocation and Limit Registers

8.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition
Multiple-partition allocation
 Multiple-partition allocation
 Degree of multiprogramming limited by number of partitions
 Variable-partition sizes for efficiency (sized to a given process’ needs)
 Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are scattered
throughout memory
 When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large enough to
accommodate it
 Process exiting frees its partition, adjacent free partitions combined
 Operating system maintains information about:
a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole)

8.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition
Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem
 First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough
 Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must
search entire list, unless ordered by size
 Produces the smallest leftover hole
 Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list
 Produces the largest leftover hole
How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes?
First-fit and best-fit better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage
utilization

8.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition
Fragmentation
 External Fragmentation – total memory space exists to
satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous
 Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may be slightly
larger than requested memory; this size difference is memory
internal to a partition, but not being used
 First fit analysis reveals that given N blocks allocated, 0.5 N
blocks lost to fragmentation
 1/3 may be unusable -> 50-percent rule

8.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition
Fragmentation (Cont.)
 Reduce external fragmentation by compaction
 Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together
in one large block
 Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and is
done at execution time
 I/O problem
 Latch job in memory while it is involved in I/O
 Do I/O only into OS buffers
 Now consider that backing store has same fragmentation
problems

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1. 8.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013 Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Contiguous Allocation  Main memory must support both OS and user processes  Limited resource, must allocate efficiently  Contiguous allocation is one early method  Main memory usually into two partitions:  Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with interrupt vector  User processes then held in high memory  Each process contained in single contiguous section of memory

2. 8.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013 Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Contiguous Allocation (Cont.)  Relocation registers used to protect user processes from each other, and from changing operating-system code and data  Base register contains value of smallest physical address  Limit register contains range of logical addresses – each logical address must be less than the limit register  MMU maps logical address dynamically  Can then allow actions such as kernel code being transient and kernel changing size

4. 8.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013 Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Multiple-partition allocation  Multiple-partition allocation  Degree of multiprogramming limited by number of partitions  Variable-partition sizes for efficiency (sized to a given process’ needs)  Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are scattered throughout memory  When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large enough to accommodate it  Process exiting frees its partition, adjacent free partitions combined  Operating system maintains information about: a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole)

5. 8.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013 Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem  First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough  Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must search entire list, unless ordered by size  Produces the smallest leftover hole  Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list  Produces the largest leftover hole How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes? First-fit and best-fit better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage utilization

6. 8.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013 Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Fragmentation  External Fragmentation – total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous  Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested memory; this size difference is memory internal to a partition, but not being used  First fit analysis reveals that given N blocks allocated, 0.5 N blocks lost to fragmentation  1/3 may be unusable -> 50-percent rule

7. 8.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013 Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Fragmentation (Cont.)  Reduce external fragmentation by compaction  Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together in one large block  Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and is done at execution time  I/O problem  Latch job in memory while it is involved in I/O  Do I/O only into OS buffers  Now consider that backing store has same fragmentation problems

Contiguous Memory Allocation.ppt

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