IP has no mechanism for error reporting or error-correcting. ICMPv4 .pdf
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IP has no mechanism for error reporting or error-correcting. ICMPv4 was created to overcome this. a) What is ICMPv4? b) How do we use ICMPv4 with the TCP/IP Suite? c) How does it overcome the limitations in IP? Solution What is ICMP? ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is an error reporting protocol network device like routers used to generate error messages to the source IP addresses when network problem prevent delivery of IP Packets. ICMP creates and sends messages to the source IP address indicating that a gateway to the router, host and service cannot be reached for packet delivery. Any Network IP device has the capability to send, receive or process ICMP messages. How do we use ICMPv4 with the TCP/IP Suite? Various message types are defined in ICMP that allow different types of information to be exchanged. These are usually either generated for the purpose of reporting errors, or for exchanging important information of different sorts that is needed to keep IP operating smoothly. ICMP itself doesn\'t define how all the different ICMP messages are used; this is done by the protocols that use the messages. In this manner, ICMP describes a simple message-passing service to other protocols. ICMP is not like most other TCP/IP protocols in that it does not perform a specific task. It defines a mechanism by which various control messages can be transmitted and received to implement a variety of functions. ICMP is considered an integral part of IP, even though it uses IP to sends its messages. The operation of ICMP involves some portion of the TCP/IP protocol software on a machine detecting a condition that causes it to generate an ICMP message. This is often the IP layer itself, though it may be some other part of the software. The message is then encapsulated and transmitted like any other TCP/IP message, and is given no special treatment compared to other IP datagrams. The message is sent over the internetwork to the IP layer at the receiving device. Again, since many of the ICMP messages are actually intended to convey information to a device\'s IP software, the IP layer itself may be the “ultimate destination” of an ICMP message once a recipient gets it. In other cases, the ultimate destination may be some other part of the TCP/IP protocol software, which is determined by the type of message received. ICMP does not use ports like UDP or TCP to direct its messages to different applications on a host; the software recognizes the message type and directs it accordingly within the software How does it overcome the limitation in IP? IP is an unreliable method for the delivery of network data. It is known as a best effort delivery mechanism. It has no built-in process to ensure that data is delivered. If an intermediary device such as a router fails, data cannot be delivered. Additionally, nothing in its basic design allows IP to notify the sender that a data transmission has failed. ICMP is the component of the TCP/IP protocol.
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write a short essay report to describe a topic of your interest rela.pdfrishabjain5053 write a short essay report to describe a topic of your interest related to the past, or current, or
future technologies of cellular communications, bandwidths, antennas or their impact to the
human society
Solution
past, or current, or future technologies of cellular communications:
Mobile computing is to describe technologies thatenable people to access network services
anyplace, anytime, and anywhere.
past,present technologies of cellular communications:
1896 Guglielmo Marconi,First demonstration of wireless telegraphy.Based on long wave,
requiring very large transmitters
1907 Commercial Trans-Atlantic Wireless Service.Huge ground stations: 30 x 100m antenna
masts
1920 Discovery of short waves by Marconi.Cheaper, smaller, better quality transmitters by
vacuum tube
1982 Start of GSM in Europe (1G analog)
1983 Start of AMPS in America (1G analog)
1992 Start of GSM (2G digital)
1997 Wireless LAN - IEEE802.11
1998 Iridium satellite system.
1999 Standardization of additional wireless LANs
2000 GSM with higher data rates (2.5G digital).HSCSD offers up to 57,6kbit/s.First GPRS trials
with up to 50 kbit/s
2001 Start of 3G systems.IMT - 2000, several “members” of a “family”, CDMA2000 in Korea,
UMTS tests in Europe.
GPRS: General Packet Radio Service
It is a mobile data service available to users of GSM mobile phones. It is often described as
\"2.5G“.
GPRS is packet-switched which means that multiple users share the same transmission channel,
only transmitting when they have data to send.
GPRS provides moderate speed data transfer, by allocating unused cell bandwidth to transmit
data.Poor bit rate in busy cells.Usually, GPRS data is billed per kilobytes of information
transceived.
future technologies of cellular communications:
Improved radio technology and antennas.smart antennas, beam forming, multiple-input multiple-
output (MIMO) 802.11N.dynamic spectrum allocation.Core network convergence.IP-based,
quality of service, mobile IP.Ad-hoc technologies.spontaneous communication, power saving,
redundancy.Simple and open service platform.intelligence at the edge, not in the network (as
with IN).more service providers, not network operators only.
Impact on Society:
Since the introduction of mobile phones, concerns (both scientific and public) have been raised
about the potential health impacts from regular use.But by 2008, American mobile phones
transmitted and received more text messages than phone calls.Numerous studies have reported
no significant relationship between mobile phone use and health, but the effect of mobile phone
usage on health continues to be an area of public concern.
For example, at the request of some of their customers, Verizon created usage controls that meter
service and can switch phones off, so that children could get some sleep.There have also been
attempts to limit use by persons operating moving trains or automobiles, coaches when writing to
potential players on their teams, and movie theater audiences. By one measure, near.
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Solution.
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solution)
ensure that
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Bangladesh (right side of panel), Nipah virus is thought to be transmitted via the consumption of
raw date palm sap. While date palm sap is collected, bats drink from the sap stream or collection
pots and contaminate the sap with Nipah virus through their saliva or urine. People become
infected with Nipah virus after drinking this contaminated date palm sap. Subsequently, these
infected people can transmit Nipah virus to others via close contact.
Arbovirus are the virus that are transmitted from one human to the other by arthropod vectors ie.,
mosquitoes, ticks etc., example of a arboviral disease is yellow fever. Nipah virus is not an
arbovirus because it transmitted from bats to humans or from pigs to humans..
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What is organizational inertia List some sources of inertia in a co.pdfrishabjain5053 What is organizational inertia? List some sources of inertia in a company like IBM or GM.
Solution
Organizational inertia refers to the phenomenon where the organization continues to move along
the path or trajectory, upon that the organization has been for quite some time. Here, the
organization does not want to change from that path and it acts as a negative point in the face of
changing business environment scenario.
There are following sources that can create the organizational inertia:
1. The rigid organizational structure where people show strong resistance to change.
2. The organizational policy
3. Benefits and perks offered to the employees and it is not changed due to the conflicting views.
4. Centralized decision making process
5. High cost of recruitment and employee welfare
6. Collective bargaining between the union and organization (if any).
Use fundamental identities to write tan t sec2t in terms of sint only.pdf
Use fundamental identities to write tan t sec2t in terms of sint only.pdfrishabjain5053 Use fundamental identities to write tan t sec2t in terms of sint only.
Solution
tan^2 t sec^2 t
tan t = sin t / cos t
sec t = 1/ cos t
so , we can write
tan^2 t sec^2 t = sin^2 t / cos^2 t * 1/ cos^2 t
= sin^2 t / cos^4 t
cos^4 t = cos^2 t * cos^2 t
cos^2 t = ( 1- sin^2 t )
cos^4 t = ( 1 - sin^2 t )^2
= 1 - 2sin^2 t + sin^4 t
hence, we can write
tan^2 t sec^2 t = (sin^2 t )/ ( sin^4 t - 2sin^2 t + 1 ).
Twenty-five people responded to a questionnaire about what types of p.pdf
Twenty-five people responded to a questionnaire about what types of p.pdfrishabjain5053 Twenty-five people responded to a questionnaire about what types of pets they had. Construct a
frequency distribution for the data (D = dogs only, C = cats only, B = both, N = neither).
Solution
Frequency of any particular value ,X is just the number of times X occurs in this table.
For example, B occurs 14 times.
Here is the frequency tableVALUEFREQUENCYD5C4B14N2.
The universe began 13 7 billion years ago, is most directly an exa.pdf
The universe began 13 7 billion years ago, is most directly an exa.pdfrishabjain5053 The universe began 13 7 billion years ago, \' is most directly an example of a __ claim
Epistemological Phenomenological Ethical Metaphysical Logical
Solution
Metaphysical
The big bang theory is an effort to explain what happened during and after that moment.
According to the standard theory, our universe sprang into existence as \"singularity\"
around13.7 billion years ago..
The Stevens Company provided $57000 of services on acco.pdf
The Stevens Company provided $57000 of services on acco.pdfrishabjain5053 The Stevens Company provided $57000 of services on account during 2014, its first year in ope
estimates that it will be unable to collect 2% of its revenues on account. The amount of
uncollectible accounts expense recognized on the 2014 income statement was o $285 O $10.000
O $1140 O $4.250 type here to search e???
Solution
Uncollectible expense = 2% of service on account
= 57000*2%
= $1,140 answer
Uncollectible expense = 2% of service on account
= 57000*2%
= $1,140 answer.
The papillae on the tongue that do not contain any taste buds are the.pdf
The papillae on the tongue that do not contain any taste buds are the.pdfrishabjain5053 The papillae on the tongue that do not contain any taste buds are the _ papillae. filiform
fungiform foliate valuate
Solution
Answer:
a). Filiform
Explanation:
The tongue contains 4 types of papillae, the most common type is filiform, thin and wire shaped
and do not contain taste buds. Dorsal and anterior border of the tongue are mushroom shaped
papillae, fungiform, these have taste buds located near the middle or in the cleft of the papillae..
QUESTION 13 Which of the following benefits is a component of Social .pdf
QUESTION 13 Which of the following benefits is a component of Social .pdfrishabjain5053 QUESTION 13 Which of the following benefits is a component of Social Security? A. workers\'
compensation B. disability benefits C.unemployment compensation D. legal assistance
Solution
answer ) option B Disability benefits
the U.S. Social Security system has three major components: retirement benefits, survivors\'
benefits and disability insurance.
answer ) option B Disability benefits
the U.S. Social Security system has three major components: retirement benefits, survivors\'
benefits and disability insurance..
Padre, Inc., buys 80 percent of the outstanding common stock of Sier.pdf
Padre, Inc., buys 80 percent of the outstanding common stock of Sier.pdfrishabjain5053 Padre, Inc., buys 80 percent of the outstanding common stock of Sierra Corporation on January
1, 2015, for $796,960 cash. At the acquisition date, Sierra’s total fair value, including the
noncontrolling interest, was assessed at $996,200 although Sierra’s book value was only
$623,000. Also, several individual items on Sierra’s financial records had fair values that
differed from their book values as follows:
Buildings and equipment
(10-year remaining life)
For internal reporting purposes, Padre, Inc., employs the equity method to account for this
investment. The following account balances are for the year ending December 31, 2015, for both
companies.
Padre, Inc., buys 80 percent of the outstanding common stock of Sierra Corporation on January
1, 2015, for $796,960 cash. At the acquisition date, Sierra’s total fair value, including the
noncontrolling interest, was assessed at $996,200 although Sierra’s book value was only
$623,000. Also, several individual items on Sierra’s financial records had fair values that
differed from their book values as follows:
Solution
Ans:
Determination of consolidate Balances:
Acquisition-date subsidiary fair value (given) $996,200
Book value of subsidiary (given) $623,000
Fair value in excess of book value $373,200
Allocations to specific accounts based on difference between fair value and book value
Land $226,000
Buildings and equipment $18,000
Copyright $150,000
Notes payable $15,200
Total $373,200
Annual excess amortizations:
Buildings and equipment ($18,000 / 10) $1,800
Copyright ($150,000 / 20) $7,500
Notes payable ($15,200 / 8) $1,900
Total $7,600
Acquisition Method:
Consolidation Entries
Accounts
Padre
Sierra
Debit
Credit
No controlling Interest
Consolidates Total
Revenues
(1,396,980)
(657,250)
(2,054,230)
Cost of goods sold
736,000
399,000
1,135,000
Depreciation Expense
298,000
15,100
E
1,800
311,300
Amortization Expense
-
8,600
E
7,500
16,100
Interest Expense
50,100
5,550
E
1,900
57,550
Equity in Income of Sierra
(177,120)
-
I
177,120
-
Separate Company Net Income
(490,000)
(229,000)
consolidate Net Income
(534,280)
No controlling Interest in Sierra\'s Income
(44,280)
44,280
Controlling Interest in CNI
(490,000)
Retained Earnings 1 / 1
(1,380,000)
(463,000)
S
(463,000)
(1,380,000)
Net Income (above)
(490,000)
(229,000)
(490,000)
Dividend Paid
260,000
65,000
D
52,000
13,000
260,000
Retained Earnings 12/31
(1,610,000)
(627,000)
(1,610,000)
Current Assets
854,920
569,100
1,424,020
Investments in Sierra
922,080
-
D
52,000
S
I
A
-
Land
369,000
60,600
A
226,000
655,600
Buildings and Equipment
955,000
324,900
E
1,800
A
18,000
1,263,700
Copyright
-
163,400
A
150,000
E
7,500
305,900
Total Assets
3,101,000
1,118,000
3,649,220
Accounts Payable
(220,000)
(199,000)
(419,000)
Notes Payable
(521,000)
(132,000)
A
15,200
E
1,900
(639,700)
NCI in Sierra 1/1
NCI in Sierra 12/ 31
(199,240)
(230,520)
(230,520)
Common Stock
(300,000)
(100,000)
S
100,000
(300,000)
Additional paid-in capital
(450,000)
(60,000)
S
60,000
(450,00.
Operating Systems Structure1- Explain briefly why the objectives o.pdf
Operating Systems Structure1- Explain briefly why the objectives o.pdfrishabjain5053 Operating Systems Structure
1- Explain briefly why the objectives of a purely batch multiprogramming operating system
conflict with those of an interactive system.
2- What features from the Mainframe operating system Multics do we see in modern operating
systems?
Solution
Answer 2..
The various features of Multics are :
-Segmented memory
-Virtual memory
-High-level language implementation
-Shared memory multiprocessor
-Multi-language support
-Relational database
-Security
-On-line reconfiguration
-Software engineering
Out of the above features, the feature that are present in modern operating system are:
1) security
Each user has to be authenticated with an username and password (network and multi-user
operating system).
Their data and files will be kept private from other users, unless they choose to make some
shareable with others.
The operating system will only allow administrators (\'super users\') to change parts of the
operating system and install applications.
2)Segmented memory
To use shared memory, we have to perform 2 basic steps:
Request to the operating system a memory segment that can be shared between processes. The
user can create/destroy/open this memory
using a shared memory object: An object that represents memory that can be mapped
concurrently into the address space of more than one process..
Associate a part of that memory or the whole memory with the address space of the calling
process. The operating system looks for
a big enough memory address range in the calling process\' address space and marks that
address range as an special range. Changes in that address
range are automatically seen by other process that also have mapped the same shared memory
object.
3)Virtual memory
Virtual memory is a memory management capability of an OS that uses hardware and software
to allow a computer to compensate for physical memory
shortages by temporarily transferring data from random access memory (RAM) to disk storage.
Virtual address space is increased using active memory
in RAM and inactive memory in hard disk drives (HDDs) to form contiguous addresses that
hold both the application and its data.
4)Shared memory multiprocessor
Shared memory is the fastest interprocess communication mechanism. The operating system
maps a memory segment in
the address space of several processes, so that several processes can read and write in that
memory segment without
calling operating system functions. However, we need some kind of synchronization between
processes that read and write shared memory.
Consider what happens when a server process wants to send an HTML file to a client process
that resides in the same machine using network mechanisms:
The server must read the file to memory and pass it to the network functions, that copy that
memory to the OS\'s internal memory.
The client uses the network functions to copy the data from the OS\'s internal memory to its own
memory.
As we can see, there are two copies, one from memory to the network an.
Need help with this java code. fill in lines where needed. Also, not.pdf
Need help with this java code. fill in lines where needed. Also, not.pdfrishabjain5053 Need help with this java code. fill in lines where needed. Also, not sure how to make the text
files and load them into program. Thanks!!
Create a package named \"reading_with_exceptions\". Write a class named:
Reading_With_Exceptions with the following method:
void process(String inputFilename)
Your program will encounter errors, and we want you to gracefully handle them in such a way
that you print out informative information and continue executing.
Your process routine will try to open a file with the name of inputFilename for input. If there is
any problem (i.e. the file doesn\'t exist), then you should catch the exception, give an appropriate
error and then return. Otherwise, your program reads the file for instructions.
Your process routine will read the first line of the file looking for an outputFilename String
followed by an integer. i.e.:
outputFilename number_to_read
Your program will want to write output to a file having the name outputFilename. Your program
will try to read from \"inputFilename\" the number of integers found in \"number_to_read\".
Your process method will copy the integers read from inputFilename and write them to your
output file(i.e. outputFilename). There should contain 10 numbers per line of output in your
output file.
If you encounter bad input, your program should not die with an exception. For example:
If the count of the numbers to be read is bad or < 0 you will print out a complaint message and
then read as many integers as you find.
If any of the other numbers are bad, print a complaint message and skip over the data
If you don\'t have enough input numbers, complain but do not abort
After you have processed inputFilename, I would like your program to then close the output file
and tell the user that the file is created. Then Open up the output file and copy it to the Screen.
For example, if inputFilename contained:
We would expect the output of your program to be (Note that after 23 numbers we stop printing
numbers):
The main program will access the command line to obtain the list of filenames to call your
process routine with.
For those of you who benefit from a Template, your program might look like:
To prove that your program works, I want you to run your program with the following command
line parameters:
file1.txt non-existent-file file2.txt file3.txt
Where non-existent-file does not exist.
file1.txt contains:
file2.txt contains:
file3.txt contains:
Solution
// Reading_With_Exceptions.java
import java.io.File; // required imports for the code
import java.io.FileInputStream;
import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
import java.io.FileOutputStream;
import java.io.PrintStream;
import java.util.Scanner;
public class Reading_With_Exceptions
{ // class that runs the code
// 1.) Create a Scanner from the inputFilename. Catch exceptions from errors.
// 2.) Read the first String from the file and use it to create a PrintStream
// catching appropriate exceptions
// 3.) Using hasNextInt and nextInt, carefully re.
Informed Consent is a significant requirement for all provider types.pdf
Informed Consent is a significant requirement for all provider types.pdfrishabjain5053 Informed Consent is a significant requirement for all provider types. How does a health entity
need to ensure that all staff have an understanding of the aspects of informed consent?
Solution
Informal consent refers to the processnof getting permission before doing any sort of healthcare
intervention or trial.the consent plays very vital role in all sort of research or test using a
particular person. Thus it can be a legal.offense is any test or research conducted without taking
any informal consent from the patient. Healthcare industry to be on their business ethics side
should communicate all.the employees about the importance of having informal consent from the
patients.The proper consent will avoind further complication or any sort of conflicts. Incase if the
patient hasn\'t provided prowpr informal consent or in partial it can be assessed by review
committee or institutional review board..
In the MVC Architecture, why is it important to keep the model, view.pdf
In the MVC Architecture, why is it important to keep the model, view.pdfrishabjain5053 In the MVC Architecture, why is it important to keep the model, view, and controller
independent of each other?
Solution
In the MVC Architecture, it is important to keep the model, view, and controller independent of
each other.
Because...
In view layer, programmers will prepare user interface for collecting different types of inputs.
Then user interface program is responsible for storing all values as a single group should send to
the controller application. Then for storing multiple values as one group user interface
application internally should use either array or collection object.
The controller layer receives all values as a single object using array or collection reads input
values from the array or collection object perform calculations and generate results then input
and output values will send to the model application.
The model layer will receive array or collection object reads all input and output values stores in
the database..
in roughly 400 words please describe3 affective outcomes of diver.pdf
in roughly 400 words please describe3 affective outcomes of diver.pdfrishabjain5053 in roughly 400 words please describe:
3 affective outcomes of diversity and 3 cognitive outcomes of diversity.
refer to ... Working in teams: moving from high potential to high performance.. BA Griffith and
EB Dunham.. Ch.7
Solution
if a firm is operating with cross culturals work force, it can be called as diverified team, which
may include the members from various backgrounds, nations, with different cultures, education
qualifications, religious and other aspects too. when people works with others, there is a great
chance to upgrade their knowledge levels by interacting with others, they can explore to new
techniques, and so on.
when people work in teams, they discuss, interact, and expose their talent. others may extract
those and the acceptable practices are followed by others. the effective outcomes of diversity are
as follows:
1. people have habituated to openness and share everthing with others
2. they trust each other and exchange what they have and what others need, similarly seek helps
from others in the limitations
3. it encourages team spirity, where all the people works on focused tasks.
4. stands with each other in the times of difficulties and in the times of success also.
the cognitive outcomes of diversity:
1. during the times of problems and difficulties, all these members tries to recollect the prior
experience related to this.
2. if there are any relevant experiences to this, they share with others, and drwn an acceptable
solution to the present problem.
3. when people works and thinks to get a solution while they are in teams, the success of getting
a correct solution is more..
Im having issues with two homework questions. I get the gist of th.pdf
Im having issues with two homework questions. I get the gist of th.pdfrishabjain5053 I\'m having issues with two homework questions. I get the gist of the mechanisms involved with
transcription and translation, but the question itself is really throwing me off.
4. What kinds of mutations might result in transcriptional errors? What kinds of mutations might
result in translational errors?
What I\'m thinking for this one is that transcriptional errors are having to do with radiation-type
mutations as well as incidences where the RNA polymerase or other polymerases make a
mistake when creating that RNA template and the mistake does not get fixed. As far as the
translational side, I\'m kind of clueless. Part of this homework is in the realm of CFTR and the
delF508 gene and the W1282X gene, as well as nonsense and missense mutations. I do not know
where they fall into this stuff.
6. Which part of the central dogma is represented by CFTRdel508 and by W1282X? Where is
the information flow interrupted (transcription or translation)? Justify your answer.
Again, I get the gist, but not really how these actually fit into the question. I BELIEVE the
answer to be that the problem / informational flow interruption occurs during translation, but I\'m
not sure that\'s correct, nor can I justify it. THANKS FOR THE HELP! :)
Solution
4. Mutation like point mutations, framshift mutations, chromosomal disjunction etc causes
incorrect base pairing at the DNA level, hence the RNA polymerase incorporates incorrect
nucleotides and thereby creating incorrect mRNA sequences. Also, any mutations in RNA
polymerase, and other transcriptional factors lead to transxccriptional errors
Similarly the mRNA is incorrect then the ribosome and the tRNA also incorporates incorrect
amino acids thereby forming a defective protein which leads to translational errors. Also, any
mutation of the tRNA/ ribosome\'s sub units (50 S and 30 S) can also lead to translational errors
thereby leading to a defective protein.
6. DNA ----> RNA ----> Protein
The deletions inthe 2 genes fall in the DNA to RNA part of central dogma.
Any mutations of the CFTRdel508 and W1282X gene causes the protein folding to be disrupted.
The protein in question for these 2 genes is Cystic Fibrosis transmembrane conductance
regulator (CFTR). Since the protein is unable to fold properly (the missense mutation in
CFTRdel508 causing the Phenylalanine not to get coded) hence the protein is unable to move out
of the Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Hence, the probelm is not at the translation level but mainly at the transcription level, since the
deletion had occured in the DNA which resulted in the coding of an incorrect mRNA thereby
forming a defective protein.
So the major problem is at the transcriptional level..
Implement the interface you wrote for Lab B (EntryWayListInterface)..pdf
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Transform tomorrow: Master benefits analysis with Gen AI today webinar, 30 A...
Transform tomorrow: Master benefits analysis with Gen AI today webinar, 30 A...Association for Project Management Transform tomorrow: Master benefits analysis with Gen AI today webinar
Wednesday 30 April 2025
Joint webinar from APM AI and Data Analytics Interest Network and APM Benefits and Value Interest Network
Presenter:
Rami Deen
Content description:
We stepped into the future of benefits modelling and benefits analysis with this webinar on Generative AI (Gen AI), presented on Wednesday 30 April. Designed for all roles responsible in value creation be they benefits managers, business analysts and transformation consultants. This session revealed how Gen AI can revolutionise the way you identify, quantify, model, and realised benefits from investments.
We started by discussing the key challenges in benefits analysis, such as inaccurate identification, ineffective quantification, poor modelling, and difficulties in realisation. Learnt how Gen AI can help mitigate these challenges, ensuring more robust and effective benefits analysis.
We explored current applications and future possibilities, providing attendees with practical insights and actionable recommendations from industry experts.
This webinar provided valuable insights and practical knowledge on leveraging Gen AI to enhance benefits analysis and modelling, staying ahead in the rapidly evolving field of business transformation.
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Transform tomorrow: Master benefits analysis with Gen AI today webinar, 30 A...
Transform tomorrow: Master benefits analysis with Gen AI today webinar, 30 A...Association for Project Management
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IP has no mechanism for error reporting or error-correcting. ICMPv4 .pdf
- 1. IP has no mechanism for error reporting or error-correcting. ICMPv4 was created to overcome this. a) What is ICMPv4? b) How do we use ICMPv4 with the TCP/IP Suite? c) How does it overcome the limitations in IP? Solution What is ICMP? ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is an error reporting protocol network device like routers used to generate error messages to the source IP addresses when network problem prevent delivery of IP Packets. ICMP creates and sends messages to the source IP address indicating that a gateway to the router, host and service cannot be reached for packet delivery. Any Network IP device has the capability to send, receive or process ICMP messages. How do we use ICMPv4 with the TCP/IP Suite? Various message types are defined in ICMP that allow different types of information to be exchanged. These are usually either generated for the purpose of reporting errors, or for exchanging important information of different sorts that is needed to keep IP operating smoothly. ICMP itself doesn't define how all the different ICMP messages are used; this is done by the protocols that use the messages. In this manner, ICMP describes a simple message-passing service to other protocols. ICMP is not like most other TCP/IP protocols in that it does not perform a specific task. It defines a mechanism by which various control messages can be transmitted and received to implement a variety of functions. ICMP is considered an integral part of IP, even though it uses IP to sends its messages. The operation of ICMP involves some portion of the TCP/IP protocol software on a machine detecting a condition that causes it to generate an ICMP message. This is often the IP layer itself, though it may be some other part of the software. The message is then encapsulated and transmitted like any other TCP/IP message, and is given no special treatment compared to other IP datagrams. The message is sent over the internetwork to the IP layer at the receiving device. Again, since many of the ICMP messages are actually intended to convey information to a device's IP software, the IP layer itself may be the “ultimate destination” of an ICMP message once a recipient gets it. In other cases, the ultimate destination may be some other part of the TCP/IP protocol software, which is determined by the type of message received. ICMP does not use ports like UDP or TCP to direct its messages to different applications on a host; the software
- 2. recognizes the message type and directs it accordingly within the software How does it overcome the limitation in IP? IP is an unreliable method for the delivery of network data. It is known as a best effort delivery mechanism. It has no built-in process to ensure that data is delivered. If an intermediary device such as a router fails, data cannot be delivered. Additionally, nothing in its basic design allows IP to notify the sender that a data transmission has failed. ICMP is the component of the TCP/IP protocol stack that addresses this basic limitation of IP. ICMP does not overcome the unreliability issues in IP. Reliability is provided by upper layer protocols. When datagram delivery errors occur, ICMP is used to report these errors back to the source of the datagram. ICMP does not correct any network problems that it encounters, it only reports them. ICMP reports on the status of the delivered packet only to the source device. It does not send information about network changes to other routers. Difference in Message Delivery of ICMP and IP : ICMP messages are encapsulated into datagrams in the same way any other data is delivered when IP is used. Since ICMP messages are transmitted in the same way as any other data, they are subject to the same delivery failures. This creates a scenario where error reports could generate more error reports and cause increased congestion on a network. For this reason, errors created by ICMP messages do not generate their own ICMP messages. Therefore, it is possible to have a datagram delivery error that is never reported back to the sender of the data. ECHO messages used by ICMP: Echo messages generally starts with PING command to check the destination reachability. All ICMP message formats start with the same three fields: The type field indicates the type of ICMP message being sent. The code field includes further information specific to the message type. The checksum field, as in other types of packets, is used to verify the integrity of the data. Importance of ICMP while sending Control messages: The reasons for this are simple. Since IP does not guarantee delivery, it cannot inform hosts when errors occur. Second, IP has no built-in method to provide control messages to hosts. Control messages are used to inform hosts of conditions such as network congestion or the existence of a better gateway to a remote network. ICMP uses the basic IP header to travel through multiple networks.